Mandatory Life without Parole for Juveniles Essay

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Currently, over 2,500 people are serving a life sentence without the option of parole for crimes committed as adolescents. Fortunately, this policy is not considered in all states. Twelve states have discontinued life sentences without the option of parole for juveniles. Almost two- thirds of life without parole sentences for juveniles (JLWOP) happens in five states. Seventy-three children were ages 13 or 14 at time that their crime was committed. Research has been conducted that proves the vast difference in brain development of a child compared to an adult. Society does not allow minors to purchase cigarettes or alcohol, enlist into the military or enter into a legal binding agreement such as an apartment lease until the age of 18 or older because of the knowledge that minors are not mature enough to make certain decisions. However, when a minor commits homicide we allow them to be sentenced as an adult and disregard their partial brain development and decreased culpability. It is the responsibility of society to protect our children from cruel and unusual punishment such as juvenile life without parole sentences. The policy brief will give a history of the juvenile justice system, trends, and current state. Brief will also address importance of the problem and recommendations for reform of this policy. CONTEXT AND IMPORTANCE OF THE PROBLEM Almost everyone would agree that children are the core of our future. Therefore, it is imperative that we have laws/policies in place that will protect them from cruel and unusual punishment in any capacity. However, much debate continues to arise concerning mandatory life in prison without the possibility of parole for juvenile offenders. In attempting to change a social policy concerning the juvenile justice system it is important to address the concern in its context. Therefore, reviewing the history of the juvenile justice system is imperative when attempting to understand the system in its current state. The attitude of society towards juvenile offenders has drastically changed over the years and therefore impacted the overall goal of the system. The juvenile system was established in the late 1800s with the goal to reform and rehabilitate. During this time it was the  belief that â€Å"bad environments caused bad children†. Consequently, specialized institutions called reformatories were formed to inseminate home like environments. The main belief that motivated this structure of the system was that children were far different from adults and would have unique individualized needs. Contrary to the gentle idea of reformatories children were often subjected to harsh labor conditions in factories and farms. Often, children who reached fifteen years of age were seen as children with little to no hope of rehabilitation and as a result were transferred to adult prisons. During this era the system was not prepared to address serious offenses committed by juveniles and therefore lacked execution of formal due process rights. In 1899 the first juvenile court system was created and soon after in 1906 the first federal system followed. By 1925, almost all states established juvenile court systems and probation services. Due to a case in 1966 the Court decided that juveniles had the right to have procedural protections and due process rights. In the late 1980s violent crimes committed by juveniles dramatically increased. The increase in crime resulted in stricter crime legislation all through the nation. The new legislation was said to be motivated by fear due to frequent incidents of school violence. This legislation formed the belief that adult crimes should be addressed with adult punishment. Consequences to juvenile crime seemed to be more punitive, contrary to past ideas of rehabilitation and reform for juveniles. The number of juvenile offenders being imprisoned enlarged and the cruelty of sentencing began to include life without parole. More recently, it seems that the overall attitude of society has changed again towards juvenile offenders. Society has begun to focus on the obvious differences between children and adults and children’s ability to mature and change. Recent studies on adolescent brain development confirm that children are different from adults in ways that are important when attempting to identify appropriate sentences for juveniles. In addition, recent Supreme Court rulings have banned the use of capital punishment for juveniles and also limited life without parole sentences to homicide offenders. Furthermore, in 2012 the Court ordered judges to consider each individual child’s mitigating circumstances. This ruling prohibited mandatory sentences of life without parole for all juveniles. In 2005, Roper v. Simmons, the Supreme Court ruled that juveniles can no longer be sentenced to death for  crimes committed when they were younger than 18 years of age. This ruling stated that a death sentence was cruel and unusual punishment for juveniles as they are immature and therefore less culpable. Consequently, this ruling affected 72 juvenile offenders in twelve states. Before this decision 22 people were killed for crimes committed as minors. Following the Roper decision the harshest sentence for a minor was life without parole. In 2010 Graham v. Florida, the Court prohibited life without parole sentencing for minors not convicted of murder. The ruling immediately affected the sentencing of 123 prisoners. Following this ruling it was recognized that crimes that do not end in murder were less deserving of the most serious punishment. After the rulings that prohibited the death penalty for minors and restricted the sentence of life without parole to murder crimes almost 2,500 prisoners were serving sentences of life without parole for crimes committed as minors. However, in 2012 Miller v. Alabama and Jackson v. Hobbs, the Supreme Court ruled that for minors the life without parole sentence was a direct violation of the Eighth Amendment. This ruling required that judges consider the juveniles character and extenuating circumstances in an attempt to give a fair sentence. As stated previously, a number of professionals have reported that adolescent brains are not fully developed and therefore over time will develop and provide capability for change as children mature. Adolescence is known to be noticeable by â€Å"transient rashness and inability to assess consequences.† In addition, people serving life without parole sentences lives vary but usually have been plagued with difficult upbringings, exposure to violence, and direct abuse. It is important that when determining sentencing for a juvenile that family and home environment are considered. Moreover, racial inequality seems to factor into the burden of this sentence. â€Å"While 23.2% of juvenile arrests for murder involve an African American suspected of killing a white person, 42.4% of JLWOP sentences are for African-American convicted of this crime. White juvenile offenders with African American victims are only half as likely to receive JLWOP sentences†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Approximately 2,000 prisoners who are currently serving juvenile life without parole sentences may be affected by this decision. The most recent ruling, Miller v. Alabama affects mandatory sentencing  policies in 29 states and the federal government. There are currently no guidelines about how states should implement retroactivity of this ruling. As a result, there have been very different reactions to the way that states will handle retroactivity of this ruling. Some state Supreme Courts have decided that Mille implies retroactively and other states have decided that Miller is not retroactive. However, most states have not changed their statues and therefore have left many prisoners anxiously waiting for possible resentencing. Currently, fifteen states do not have prisoners serving life without parole sentences and the remaining 35 states have less than 100 prisoners serving life without parole sentences for crimes committed as juveniles. Furthermore, the monetary cost for JLWOP is astronomical. Housing cost for juveniles serving LWOP requires decades of public expenditures. It is estimated that the annual cost for incarceration per inmate is approximately 31,000. Due to increased medical expenses after the age of 55 the annual cost raises to 65,000. Therefore, a lifetime sentence for a juvenile will cost taxpayers almost 2 million dollars. SPECIFIC RECOMMENDATIONS There have been great strides concerning cruel and unusual punishment for sentencing of juvenile offenders. Removing juvenile life without parole for all juveniles would not guarantee release of offenders. However, it would provide the opportunity for the offender’s case to be reviewed once he/she has served a realistic amount of their sentence. During this review the offenders individual circumstances, such as their family and home environment would be considered when decided to grant the possibility of parole. In several other countries a mandatory review is completed once the offenders serve 10 to 15 years of their sentence. However, if sufficient rehabilitation has not occurred the individual will remain in prison and another review be granted in the next five years. There is growing support for this method of reform concerning JLWOP. The state of California now provides offenders a realistic opportunity at parole after 15-25 years if their crime was committed while they w ere minors. Also, requiring Miller’s retroactivity for all states would be a great stride  in the area of policy reform. Opponents to retroactivity argue that Miller did not ban life without parole for juvenile offenders but instead required that a judge follow a particular process when imposing the penalty. Those against retroactivity also highlight the significant cost of requiring this. They also dispute that resentencing could take resources from current cases in order to focus on old cases where facts may not be available or non-existent. Furthermore, this could activate the right to counsel for offenders who wish to challenge their sentence which would also add to the cost of retroactivity. Opponents strongly insist that funds would be better directed at reforming juvenile sentencing for sentencing after Miller. On the contrary, proponents of retroactivity argue that the court meant for its ruling to be retroactive. Opponents state that â€Å"once a new rule is functional to the defendant in the case announcing the rule, evenhanded justice requires that it be applied retroactively to all who are similarly situated.† For that reason, when the Court reversed Jackson v. Hobbs it also authorized the retroactivity of other cases similar positioned. Replacing mandatory life without parole with lesser sentences such as life with the possibility of parole or eliminating juvenile life without parole altogether is also another recommendation for reform of this policy. The best solution seems to be individualized sentencing for juvenile offenders. This solution would require individual sentence hearing for minors with crimes of murder and individual evaluation. However, if this law was required to be retroactive family of the victims would directly be affected by this change. Families may have to endure the potential impact of parole board hearing for the offender. In addition, community members who have a financial investment in the business of prisons would also be directly affected as their revenue would greatly decrease over time. Lastly, schools and Social workers can work to identify children who may be experiencing difficulty in the family and home environment and offer services in an attempt to prevent the child from committing a crime and therefore having to be introduced to the juvenile justice system. REFERENCES The End of Mandatory Juvenile Life without Parole. Kennedy, Megan. Criminal Justice Policy Review. Sep. 2014, Vol. 25 Issue 5, p553-578. 26p DO1: 10. 1177/0887430341. Review for Release: Juvenile Offenders, State Parole Practices & the Eight Amendment. Russell, Sarah French. Indiana Law Journal. Winter 2014, Vol. 89 Issue 1, p373-440. 68p. Just Grow Up Already: The Diminished Culpability of Juvenile Gang Members After Miller V. Alabama. Kellogg, Sarah A. Boston College Law Review. 2014, Vol. 55 Issue 1, p265-299. 35p. Branded for Life: The Unconstitutionality of Mandatory& Life time Juvenile Sex Offender Registration& Notification. Parker, Shannon C. Virginia Journal of Social Policy& the Law. 2014, Vol. 21 Issue 1, p167-205. Criminal Law-Juvenile Life without Parole Sentences-Eleventh Circuit Holds that Miller Is Not Retroactive. Harvard Law Review. Feb. 2014, Vol. 127. Issue 4, p1252-1259. 8p. Mitigating After Miller: Legislative Considerations & Remedies for the Future of Juvenile Sentencing. Fiorillo, Sara E. Boston University Law Review. Dec 2013, Vol. 93 Issue 6, p2095- 2129, 35p. Symposium: Bombshell or Baby step? The Ramifications of Miller V Alabama for Sentencing Law& Juvenile Crime Policy. Litton, Paul. Missouri Law Review. Fall 2013, Vol 78 Issue 4, P 1003-1014. 12p.

Dyslexia and its manifestation in Secondary School

In 1968, the World Federation of Neurologists defined dyslexia as â€Å" a upset in kids who, despite conventional schoolroom experience, fail to achieve the linguistic communication accomplishments of reading, authorship, and spelling commensurate with their rational abilities † . Harmonizing to the U.S. National Institutes of Health, dyslexia is aA larning disabilityA that can impede a individual ‘s ability to read, compose, spell, and sometimes speak.A Dyslexia is the most common acquisition disablement inA childrenA and persists throughout life. The badness of dyslexia can change from mild to severe. The Oklahoman dyslexia is treated, the more favorable the result ; nevertheless, it is ne'er excessively late for people with dyslexia to larn to better their linguistic communication accomplishments. Children with dyslexia have trouble in larning to read despite traditional direction, at least mean intelligence, and an equal chance to larn. It is caused by damage in the encephalon ‘s ability to interpret images received from the eyes or ears into apprehensible linguistic communication. It does non ensue from vision or hearing jobs. It is non due toA mental deceleration, encephalon harm, or a deficiency of intelligence. Dyslexia can travel undetected in the early classs of schooling. The kid can go frustrated by the trouble in larning to read, and other jobs can originate that will mask dyslexia. The kid may demo marks ofA depressionA and low self-pride. Behaviour jobs at place every bit good as at school are often seen. The kid may go unmotivated and develop a disfavor for school. The kid ‘s success in school may be jeopardized if the job remains untreated. Dyslexia may impact several different maps. Ocular dyslexia is characterized by figure and missive reversals and the inability to compose symbols in the right sequence. Auditory dyslexia involves trouble with sounds of letters or groups of letters. The sounds are perceived as jumbled or non heard right. â€Å" Dysgraphia † refers to the kid ‘s trouble retention and commanding a pencil so that the right markers can be made on the paper. Classroom instructors may non be able to find if a kid has dyslexia. They may observe early marks that suggest farther appraisal by a psychologist or other wellness professional in order to really name the upset. Letter and figure reversals are the most common warning mark. Such reversals are reasonably common up to the age of 7 or 8 and normally diminish by that clip. If they do non, it may be appropriate to prove for dyslexia or other larning jobs. Difficulty copying from the board or a book can besides propose jobs. There may be a general disorganisation of written work. A kid may non be able to retrieve content, even if it involves a favorite picture or storybook. Problems with spacial relationships can widen beyond the schoolroom and be observed on the resort area. The kid may look to be uncoordinated and have trouble with organized athleticss or games. Trouble with left and right is common, and frequently laterality for either manus has non been established. In the early classs , music and dance are frequently used to heighten academic acquisition. Children with dyslexia can hold trouble traveling to the beat of the music. Children may hold dyslexia or a learning disablement if they have one or more of the undermentioned symptoms: Letter or word reversals when reading. ( Such as was/saw, b/d, p/q ) . Letter or word reversals when authorship. Trouble reiterating what is said to them. Poor handwriting or publishing ability. Poor pulling ability. Change by reversaling letters or words when spelling words that are presented orally. Trouble groking written or spoken waies. Trouble with right – left directivity. Trouble understanding or retrieving what is said to them. Trouble understanding or retrieving what they have merely read. Trouble seting their ideas on paper. Auditory jobs in dyslexia encompass a assortment of maps. Normally, a kid may hold trouble retrieving or understanding what he hears. Remembering sequences of things or more than one bid at a clip can be hard. Partss of words or parts of whole sentences may be missed, and words can come out sounding good story. The incorrect word or a similar word may be used alternatively. Children fighting with this job may cognize what they want to state but have problem happening the existent words to show their ideas. Many elusive marks can be observed in kids with dyslexia. Children may go withdrawn and look to be depressed. They may get down to move out, pulling attending off from their acquisition trouble. Problems with self-esteem can originate, and equal and sibling interactions can go labored. These kids may lose their involvement in school-related activities and look to be unmotivated or lazy. The emotional symptoms and marks are merely every bit of import as the academic and require equal attending. Over 180 research surveies to day of the month hold proven that phonics is the best manner to learn reading to all pupils. They besides have shown that phonics is the lone manner to learn reading to pupils with dyslexia and other larning disablements. The challenge for instruction governments is to supply the leading and to concentrate the resources necessary to guarantee the development of dyslexia friendly schools. Bing an effectual school and being dyslexia friendly are two sides of the same coin. Effective schools enjoy strong leading, value staff development and wage close attending to the quality of direction and acquisition. These are schools in which all kids are of import regardless of ability or trouble. Dyslexia in schools demands to be seen to hold position within the school. This can be achieved by guaranting that the governors are steadfastly committed to back uping dyslexic kids across the course of study. The most effectual manner would be through the School Development Plan: Offering comprehensive preparation Explicating a common attack Puting marks based on National Curriculum forms Puting in topographic point monitoring and rating systems. Head instructors need to take the duty of guaranting that the doctrine of the school is dyslexia friendly. This might associate to attitudes and actions held by instructors and support staff. All staff needs to be cognizant that although kids might hold failings with specific parts of course of study entree, they are likely to be at least of mean ability if non a great trade higher. Parents need to be brought into the changing set up, their concerns heard and their cooperation sought where possible. It is of import to indicate out that it is really helpful when kids receive a high grade for content and cognition instead than ever being penalised due to hapless presentation accomplishments, spelling, punctuation and grammar. The kid should be acquiring aid in these countries of failing and should be motivated to maintain seeking pass holding his ideas, thoughts and cognition valued. Within schools there is the necessity for a scope of developing demands to be carried out with relevant staff. It would be ideal to hold a dyslexia-trained specializer in every school. To make so there is the demand for mainstream instructors and knowing larning support helpers in the schoolroom to assist the kid on a regular footing. In add-on it would be extremely utile for caput instructors and governors to go to awareness-raising Sessionss on the demands of the dyslexic kid and the benefits to the school of dyslexia proviso. As Reid ( 1997 ) says of instructor preparation: it is of import that schoolroom instructors receive some preparation in dyslexia offering both theoretical penetrations and practical experience.

Are Willy Loman and Oedipus Rex true tragic heroes?

The tragic hero should be the kind of hero in whom we can all see ourselves, and whose struggle we identify with. Neither Oedipus nor Willy is such a character: both are so hell-bent on following what is shown to be a clearly mistaken path of action that we cannot share in their suffering or misfortune. I do not believe that we cannot see or identify with either Willy or Oedipus' character. I think that both characters show both the best and worst aspects of humanity. Oedipus especially has admirable qualities that we as an audience would aspire to. It is interesting to note the opening: it is the only surviving Sophocles' play to open with such a mass dramatic scene. This was more common in dramatists such as Aeschylus' work. Sophocles' openings were usually more quiet and private. The scene opens with Oedipus addressing Thebes, and shows a paternalistic side to Oedipus. Firstly, the staging would have helped to enhance this paternalism – Oedipus is on the stage, raised above the orchestra where the chorus would stand, speaking down to them dominating the space. He refers to Thebes as ‘My children' which suggests that although he is an authority figure, he is concerned about his people, and is compassionate. It is rare in Greek tragedy for rulers to address their people in this way. In the rest of his opening speech Oedipus is comforting and devoted. A modern audience would especially admire Oedipus for this, and this would help us identify with Oedipus. The ancient Greeks would also have likened him to their great, grand, ruthless but democratic leader Pericles – which would have increased their identification. Oedipus also has a degree of empathy: ‘You suffer; yet, though sick, not one of you Suffers a sickness half as great as mine' This empathy shows a humane caring side despite his elevated status he is not at all different from his people. This suggests that although Oedipus is treated almost god-like, he can identify with the average person. This helps with the audience's identification with Oedipus. Towards the end the audience see Oedipus' large capacity for love and affection – even after his downfall. He loves his daughers: ‘But my unhappy daughters, my two girls, Whose chairs were always set beside my own' This beautiful insight into the relationship between Oedipus and his daughters shows Sophocles' uncanny ability to express emotion, and would appeal to the audience, we can all identify with familial love. Oedipus is determined in his struggle, and as an audience we identify with this – as normal average human beings we have to be determined in order to overcome struggles in life. He constantly struggles to find the truth of his identity: ‘Stop! Who were they? Who were my parents? Tell me! ‘ I must ask: how is wishing to know the truth surrounding a mysterious background deemed as ‘hell-bent'? Surely that is what everyone strives for in life is the ancient Greek aphorism: Know Thyself. Every common person can identify with this; it is not confined to the great and mighty. Oedipus' language here is exclamatory and conveys a note of desperation – the audience can obtain a sense of his real burning desire to know himself. Oedipus also has characteristics in himself that we can identity with – not because they are admirable, but because they are flaws, which all of mankind possess. The audience can see a glimpse of arrogance and vanity, when he says ‘Whose fame is known to all' but to contemporary Greeks pride was not at all a weakness. However, to a modern audience, Oedipus would seem arrogant here, and this perhaps shows a more unappealing side to humanity. It begins to emerge that Oedipus has an unrelenting quest for knowledge, and is no pushover: ‘But if you keep silent, if any man Fearing for self or friend shall disobey me' The audience glimpses of how impatient and inquisitive Oedipus actually is, as he poses a quick fire of questions towards Creon, e. g. : ‘Where was he murdered? In the palace here? Or in the country? Or was he abroad? This could perhaps provide a good argument for the above statement – that Oedipus is ‘hell-bent' on following this mistaken path of action. However, I feel that everyone at some point is determined to follow something mistaken, and it is how they deal with their error that really determines their heroism. This is what the above statement ignores; the tragic hero isn't determined by the events leading to their downfall, but more so how they respond to these events. There is a marked change in Oedipus, his tone changes one of irritability: ‘Why, what is this? Why are you so despondent'. Throughout the quick dialogue with Teiresias the audience are shown a less controlled Oedipus: ‘But to withhold your knowledge! This is wrong Disloyal to the city of your birth. ‘ There is a repetition of negatives here, and a critical accusatory tone. Oedipus is now more exclamatory ‘You villain! There is a constant questioning by Oedipus, and the flow of speech between the characters is more fragmented and jagged than previously. This is achieved by the use of many hyphens and short sentences: ‘You do not know- therefore I am the villain! This again creates a much more chaotic and less controlled side to Oedipus – he is not perfect which I actually feel helps us to empathise with him, and consequently are more able to share in his misfortune. Teiresias appears to try and stop Oedipus' misguided path of action in the same way that Biff tries to stop Willy ‘I am not a leader of men, Willy, and neither are you' – but both Oedipus and Willy are too strong of characters to be swayed. ‘This crime was planned and carried out by you' which shows the irrational side to his character, and the simple absurdness of it all. I think Oedipus' anger is pardonable with Thebes in great danger; he cannot get to the core of the mystery when Teiresias refuses to speak. Also, the refusal is incriminating; and it was not unknown for a king to be plotted against, so I could argue that Oedipus is not completely irrational. Greeks were accustomed to taking the oracle's words with a grain of salt, the oracle had not supported Athens in either the Persian or Peloponnesian War, and so I think a contemporary audience would be able to identify more with Oedipus at this point, and we may not see much Oedipus in ourselves, The concept of oracles is very foreign to us. There are however, some parts of the play were we cannot share or identify with Oedipus' suffering – simply because it is so far removed from what we know. For example, Oedipus' downfall is extremely intense. The language and imagery in describing this terrible downfall is rich and evocative: ‘Showers of black rain and blood-red hail together' is said by the messenger in describing how Oedipus has blinded himself; he also speaks of the ‘common storm' of the husband and wife. Oedipus also despairs ‘Oh cloud of darkness abominable. This graphic storm metaphor is used extensively throughout the play, and conveys to the audience the catastrophic disharmony between man and nature caused by chaos in the royal house of Thebes. The Greeks had a dangerous freedom in their open society – which could perhaps be a reason why Oedipus is so ‘hell bent' on following this mistaken path. Each individual is un-accommodated and alone – with nothing to confin e him. It adds unique terror to the Greek tragic vision – we can see from the devastating downfall of Oedipus that the gods were unpredictable – no Greeks expected perfect justice from them. In modern society, most people trust the goodness of their God and abide under the shadow of the Almighty. From this viewpoint I feel that a modern audience could perhaps not share so much in Oedipus' suffering, because they don't expect it. But in his downfall we also see strength in Oedipus – and this is where we feel relieved or uplifted, and the completion of the catharsis. When Oedipus returns to the stage blinded, the audience know that he has passed through the dark night of the soul and has survived the worst. At this stage Oedipus joins the chorus in a lyrical exchange, a kind of duet that begins with an outcry of pain and suffering ‘Alas! alas! and woe for my misery' . In joining the chorus in song meter, he expresses with a new level of emotion and sympathy with humanity. This is in stark contrast to his previous commanding distance and he can now identify and stand beside mere mortal man – which he is himself. I think this is one of the most important parts of the play with regards to Oedipus being presented as a hero. We can identify with him because even if he did pursue a ‘hell-bent' path he made it out alive – and can now empathise with the rest of humanity. A tragic hero must encounter a tragedy – or else they are not heroic, and I definitely can say Oedipus encounters a tragedy. Oedipus does not flinch or hide away from what he has dome – he speaks clearly ‘And she that bore me has borne too my children'. This admittance and courage shows the endurance of the human spirit, Oedipus transcends suffering. The audience will feel a degree of optimism for humans – all is not lost in Oedipus Tyrannus. Oedipus, unlike before, now accepts his destiny ‘My fate must take the course it will' and accepts it quietly and calmly. The audience do not see the common self-pity of the protagonist in this tragedy unlike others – e. g. Lear in Shakespeare's King Lear. Oedipus remains a tower of strength. Oedipus here highlights the best qualities found in humans. Aristotle stated that it is the quality of the hero's response to the peripeteia and the manner in which he confronts it that determines his essential worth as a tragic hero and gives him ultimate tragic status. Oedipus, in coming through the dark night of the soul, confronts his destiny with courage and bravery. This is echoed in Willy Loman, who never gives up his dream of success for him or his son Biff. To imply that Oedipus is on a hell-bent path suggests that fate has victimised him. I believe this is not true – Oedipus could have left the plague in Thebes, he could have left the murder of Laius un-investigated and he could have not pressed Teiresias or the herdsman for the truth. However, his piety, justice, and desire for knowledge meant that he must. And thus it is his character that has caused the tragedy – his good and bad qualities – his human qualities – and so thus I find that we do share his suffering and misfortune. Willy is a product of the optimistic post war society, and he has a real burning desire to sell and succeed: ‘Goddammit, I could sell them! ‘ This is admirable, and shows an iron determination as well as joyous enthusiasm in Willy's character, and so one could argue that like Oedipus' iron determination, Willy has aspects in his character that highlight the best in humanity. He has a real sense of competition, and acknowledges that the ‘competition is maddening! ‘ Willy doesn't accept this competition with defeat – he presses on – he even states to Biff: ‘Never leave a job till you're finished'. I don't see how striving till the very end, regardless of how successful you are in monetary terms, is considered ‘hell-bent'. Willy loves his family: ‘The man who never worked a day but for your benefit' and I feel that the audience would definitely share in his suffering and misfortune – millions of people today strive to provide for their families. Willy is an admirable in his determination for success for his family: ‘I get the feeling that I'll never sell anything again, that I won't make a living for you, or a business for the boys'. The audience feel a sense of pathos, Willy is striving for a better life for his family, and his struggle is against a mighty and powerful force, that ultimately leads to his demise – quite like the gods in Oedipus Tyrannus. Like Oedipus, although he cares for his family deeply, his drive to preserve his personal dignity and honour surpasses their need, and this could perhaps explain why he chooses to kill himself – leaving Linda with nothing. External forces such as consumerism also shape Willy's way of thinking, and would have affected millions of people in that period in America. Consumerism was a major force in the late forties, with families having more disposable income and industry and economy booming, consumer products were churning out faster than ever before to meet the demand. This is demonstrated in Death of a Salesman: ‘there's nine-sixty for the washing-machine. And for the vacuum cleaner there's three and a half' speaks Linda in Act One, and Willy laments how ‘we should've bought a well-advertised machine'. Arthur Miller denounces consumerism through Willy: ‘Once in my life I would like to own something outright before it's broken'. A contemporary audience should be able to identify with this, that Willy has an up-hill struggle against a corrupt society. Willy's mistaken path is not entirely his own doing, but the above statement does not consider these external factors in shaping Willy's destiny. Willy lies unthinkingly – it is almost like an automatic reaction. The audience can see though; Willy's later hesitance, stuttering and pauses ‘Well, I – I did about a hundred and eighty-gross in Providence' showing the extreme discrepancy between his dreams and his reality. This shows his insecurities behind the bravado ‘I'm fat. I'm very – foolish to look at, Linda'. These poignant moments show the deep-seated insecurities within Willy – and I think the audience will be able to identify with Willy at these times – and sympathise with him. Although Willy may be deluded and lie unthinkingly, we can see that he is not completely deluded though, and in this strange metaphor ‘The woods are burning! Willy is realising that his dreams are going up in smoke. This is juxtaposed with the realist vernacular that occurs throughout the play, and suggests this line is of great importance – that Willy is aware that his path is mistaken. However, it suggests that at this stage, he must continue to follow it to retain a sense of personal dignity. This shows the complexity of Willy's decisions, and I feel the above quote trivialises them somewhat. Willy is tired and exhausted – this is made clear in the stage directions: ‘Even, as he crosses the stage to the doorway of the house, his exhaustion is apparent. He unlocks the door, comes into the kitchen, and thankfully lets his burden down'. This staging helps to enhance the realism of Willy's character, and the audience can see visually as well as from the dialogue this man's exhaustion. This very humanistic portrayal of Willy would strike a note with the audience, and I feel that we can share in his suffering, and that he is not following this mistaken path for trivial reasons – he genuinely wants to be better. We can also see in Willy the worst in ourselves – this man has many flaws. There are no attempts to idealise Willy – he is perhaps an anti-hero, and Arthur Miller states that this tragic process is ‘not beyond the common man'. As an audience, we should be able to identify with Willy's suffering and misfortune even more than Oedipus', as it is not so far removed from our own selves. Willy can be rude and dismissive ‘Don't be a pest Bernard! What an anaemic', his language here being vulgar and childish. He can also be intensely angry at the people who love him – he is seen on stage as ‘exploding at her' (Linda). He also betrays Linda's trust in his affair with the woman – which, in memory time – comes back to haunt him: ‘[The WOMAN'S laugh is heard. ] Willy: Shut up! Willy's interior is explored through the use of memory time. Willy often reverts into episodes of memory time when reality becomes too hard to bear. From a psychological point of view, it shows that Willy is perhaps trying to repress the pain he is feeling. This enables the audience to see a more rounded view of Willy's situation, and we are shown his mental suffering graphically, which increases our sympathy for this character. The staging in Oedipus Tyrannus is much simpler and relies mostly on the dialogue – and so a modern audience may not be able to identify as much with Oedipus, as we do not see such detail into his mind. Other characters also highlight Willy's suffering; Linda says ‘He's been trying to kill himself'. Is Willy finally giving in to his failure? We see however, later on in the play, that his attempts to kill himself are not because he is admitting failure, but to gain i20,000 in life insurance in order for Biff to become successful: ‘It's twenty thousand dollars on the barrelhead. Guaranteed, gilt-edged, you understand? ‘ he tells Ben in a fictional episode. Ben uses the sinister metaphor: ‘The jungle is dark but full of diamonds, Willy' to describe Willy's suicide. This is perhaps a point in the play were I do agree with the expressed view ‘hell-bent' on following a mistaken path. Willy has such determination that he will end his own life to secure some sort of success. I feel that here the audience would find it hard to identify with this – most of us would never go this far, and I think most of us would realise how success is not the most important thing in life. For Willy though, it is what he has based his whole life on, and like Oedipus, he wants to preserve that honour. Miller states that the tragic feeling is evoked in us when we are in the presence of a character who is ready to lay down his life, if need be, to secure one thing – his sense of personal dignity'. This perfectly describes Willy, and so, even if we cannot perhaps identify specifically with his struggle, we are still in the presence of a tragic hero. We could ask however, does Willy need to lay down his life for his personal dignity? It doesn't matter what we think, because for Willy, this is the only way to. I feel that Willy's path is certainly more hell-bent than Oedipus' in that Willy never gains self-knowledge or approaches an anagnorisis of what he truly is, Biff sadly states in the Requiem ‘He never knew who he was'. Whereas Willy dies perhaps in vain, Oedipus survives the dark night of the soul, and accepts his destiny. This could be why audiences more readily see Oedipus as a tragic hero whom we can see the best and worst of ourselves in.

Philosophy of Emotion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Philosophy of Emotion - Essay Example In view of the prolifertion of incresingly fruitful exchnges between reserches of different stripes, it is no longer useful to spek of the philosophy of emotion in isoltion from the pproches of other disciplines, prticulrly psychology, neurology nd evolutionry biology. While it is quite impossible to do justice to those pproches here, some sidelong glnces in their direction will im to suggest their philosophicl importnce.In this ppr I will criticlly nlys th concpt of motion s it is rfrrd by svrl rsrchs nd philosophrs. I will py spcific ttntion to th dfinition of motion by Solomon nd Russll who invstigtd th phnomnon profoundly nd from diffrnt prospctiv s th mjority of uthors. Philosophrs hv bn concrnd nd oftn worrid bout th ntur of motion sinc Socrts nd th "prSocrtics" who prcdd him, nd lthough th disciplin hs grown up s th pursuit of rson, th motions hv lwys lurkd in th bckground, s thrt to rson, s dngr to philosophy nd philosophrs, s just plin unrsonbl. Prhps tht is why on of th most nduring mtphors of rson nd motion hs bn th mtphor of mstr nd slv, with th wisdom of rson firmly in control nd th dngrous impulss of motion sfly supprssd, chnnlld or, idlly, in hrmony with rson. But nowhr hv th unruly nd thrtning powr of th motions bn mor t odds with wht hs oftn bn clld "rson" thn in th rlm of justic, whr both compssion nd its vicious "ngtiv" countrprt, vngfulnss, hv bn condmnd s disruptiv, irrlvnt nd, t worst, downright dngrous (Jms, 1889). Robert Solomon (1980) spurred both interest nd opposition with his provoctive thesis tht emotions re judgments, lbeit judgments of prticulr kind, chrcterized by their mode of hste nd their evlutive content. Under the influence of (Srtre 1948), he lso dopted the view tht emotions could be understood s strtegic choices, collectively driven by the gol of protecting nd enhncing self-esteem (Solomon 1984). In his more recent work he hs lso written bout the emotionl dimension of justice, nd dvocted n enrichment of emotion theory through cross-culturl perspectives nd the integrtion of scientific perspectives (Solomon 1999). Th rgumnts tnd to focus on th llgd "cpriciousnss" nd "prjudic" of motions, lthough, ltrntivly, thy r ttckd for thir "intrctibility" nd thir stupidity. On th on hnd, consrvtivs lov nothing mor thn to lmbst th "do-goodrs" nd "blding hrts," nmly thos who xprss thir flings rthr thn stick by som bstrct nd oftn ruthlss, but in ny cs "hrd-hdd" thory. On th othr hnd, thr is th g-old insistnc on "th rul of lw," shrd by both librls nd consrvtivs, which insists on "not rturning vil for vil," nd, ccordingly, th forswring nd condmntion of rvng. But compssion nd rvng r but two sids of th sm coin, nd ginst th wisdom tht gos bck to Plto. Rson is not th mstr hr, nor should it b. (Nor, of cours, should it b slv.) Wht must b shown is tht th motions do not nd should not ply n infrior rol in dlibrtions bout justic, nd tht it is fls tht motions r mor primitiv, lss intllignt, mor bstil, lss dpndbl, nd mor dngrous thn rson. Rson nd motion r not two conflicting nd ntgonistic spcts of th soul. Rtionl motions constitut justic, which is nithr dispssiont nor mrly motionl. "I hd been dvised erly in life tht sound decisions cme from

Chief Security Officer Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Chief Security Officer - Assignment Example Computer crime cab be described as any unlawful activity involving a combination of a network and a computer. Some examples of computer crimes include hacking, pornography, copyright infringement and many others. In essence, the issue of computer crime has elicited heightened debates among heads of various institutions of higher learning. As a chief security officer in the institution I have to establish effective strategies that prevent the occurrence of computer crimes and mitigate any losses that might be suffered in case a cyber-crime occurs. The neighboring institutions of higher learning have established various measures to curb the problem of computer crime. In essence, from the available studies, it can be affirmed that the challenge of cyber-crimes affects  many  institutions of higher learning  across the  US. In this regard, the ministry of education in conjunction with the various institutions of higher learning have initiated several strategies to handle the problem of cyber-crime. In essence, most institutions have established backup information systems to ensure that important information is not lost to cyber-crime. Maintaining an information backup system has proved to be one of the effective strategies for handling the problem of computer crime. Essential a backup system ensure that the stored information is not lost through computer viruses or other computer related malfunctions. Essentially, it is imperative to identify that the problem of computer crime is quite diverse. For instance, one of the m echanisms employed to execute computer crime is the use of viruses. The viruses are spread through the various websites found on the internet including emails. Apparently, the people who conduct computer crimes share some links on the websites and send some random links containing viruses to people’s email. Following such links transfers the virus

Undertake a literature search on overhead costs and write about the Essay

Undertake a literature search on overhead costs and write about the subject drawing relevant conclusions - Essay Example Undertake a literature search on overhead costs and write about the subject drawing relevant conclusions On the other hand, labour and material costs are easily traceable and can therefore easily be associated with the final product (Hartley, 2009). The allocation and measurement of overhead costs is therefore a very important factor in accounting given that it makes no sense to engage in production if the business experiences much overhead cost that cannot balance the revenues (Hilton, 2012). The overhead costs in business are basically the costs the ongoing expenses realized in the operations. They include electricity, rent wages and gas. The name overhead arises out of the fact that these costs cannot be easily associated with the final products but are nevertheless imperative for the continued functioning of the business (Kieso & Weygandt, 2001). In any case, most of the overhead costs are not directly related to the business. For instance full rent for the premises has to be paid whether the business operates for fewer hours or not. In the income statement, the overhead costs inclu de all the costs except direct materials, direct labour and direct expenses (Horngren, 2002). Overhead allocation In most cases, the overhead costs are normally much higher than the direct costs. In this regard, accountants must effectively allocate overhead costs to the inventory. Overhead costs normally fall into two categories. Administrative overheads include all the costs realized in production and development of goods such as front office and sales. Manufacturing overheads include all the costs incurred by the business other than direct costs (Innes & Mitchell, 2005). It is imperative to allocate the manufacturing overheads to the inventory items classified as finished goods or work in progress. However, the overheads should not be allocated to the raw materials. In one procedure, all the manufacturing costs are accumulated into cost pools and then an activity formula is applied in apportioning the overheads in the cost pools to the inventory in the business. As such, the allo cation formula becomes: Cost pool/Total activity measure= Overhead allocation per Unit Absorption costing In some cases, the overhead costs are ignored from the general expenses realized by a business. In this case, absorption costing is an important way of ensuring that such omissions are well addressed. Unlike variable costing where the fixed costs are not actually absorbed by the product, absorption costing ensures that all the direct costs realized in the production of goods are factored within the cost base. In this case, absorption costing is important given that the fixed cost normally provide future benefits to the business. Through the use of absorption costing, the overhead costs are easily included in the total production costs and can therefore be attributed to any unit production. Tax advantages Manufacturing overhead costs are normally tax deductible. It is therefore very important for the business to effectively track all these cost to the overall manufacturing expens es. In this case, the taxable income can greatly be reduced and subsequently lower the tax burden for the business (Khalik, 2008). Most of the overhead costs are normally deductible in the very year they are incurred which actually works to the advantage of the business. Nevertheless, equipment is depreciated over a period of years. Disadvantages Rising prices Considering the inflationary environment realized in the present business environment, the rising overhead costs

Health Care Policies Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Health Care Policies - Assignment Example Domestic violence act protects one against one from abuse. Domestic violence is behaviors that one has with the aim of achieving control of other partners. Domestic violence in a society can include several activities that require one to be protected from. Abuse can include physical attacks which can come through sexual relationships that are forced, harassment and verbal abuse with demeaning comments, threats, creating a disturbance at one's territory, spying on one and child abuse. When these activities occur in a place, there are actions and policies that can be used to take action for those that perfume the acts. Domestic violence can be controlled in different ways in different types of courts. In criminal courts, the state is able to arraign the abuser (Greer, 2009). Possible crimes that can be handled in these situations include murder, rape, kidnapping, assault and elder abuse. In civil courts, one is able to address the issues that occur due to harassment and money damages. In the court, one can be held responsible for personal injury and sexual harassment. Divorce and family courts are also used to protect from domestic violence. Court Order of Protection is a policy that has been put protects again domestic violence. The policy makes the special need of one that has been abused to be addressed. The policy is able to order the abuser to stay away from the one abused and prevent contact through phone email or mail (Greer, 2009). For the policy to be applied there must be proof that there was the intention of violence. These are legal rights that govern reproduction. Reproduction rights include the right to birth control, right to safe and legal abortion, freedom of contraception and sterilization and also the right to access reproductive health care of good quality. Reproductive rights also give one the opportunity to access education on matters that concern sex and the infections that occur.

Burberry clothing company UK Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Burberry clothing company UK - Coursework Example Valuation is the main part of investment. The considerable part that creates information that states a proper valuation in the financial statement. In the new Financial Statement Analysis and Security Valuation done by Stephen Penman it shows that students understand how to extract new information in this financial statement by using the data that was obtained and value the firms. By handling the accounting in financial statements and using the financial statements the lenses view the business and assess the value in generating new financial statements (Paul 114). Burberry group plc is the Company that is the main Company in the Burberry Group. The stock exchange has the principal business used in the larger part of these investments. Burberry Group plc and the additions as a Group is the large-scale comfort goods manufacturer, wholesaler and retailer. The Group that is also licensed that other parties manufacture and issue all the products using the Burberry trade marks as the local brand. All the other companies consist of the Groups that mainly control the Company both directly and indirectly (Karen 98). Most of these financial statements were prepared using the ongoing anxiety on the basis of the historical costs and convention that the exception is about the financial instruments that involve good financial statements that is fair and valuable in accordance to the applicable to this accounts (Paul107). The Annual Report and Accounts should take the whole path as required and become a fairly balanced and comprehensive statement that provides all the information that is necessary for the shareholders in assessing the performance of the groups. Therefore, business model and strategy used by the Board is satisfied and had met the obligation that summarizes the responsibilities of directors in the annual financial statements that is set out to provide the report of the auditors and the statements used by the auditors about their reported

The impact of cultural differences on the hierarchy of a hotel Research Paper - 1

The impact of cultural differences on the hierarchy of a hotel - Research Paper Example Customers would think that quality service is being delivered to them if the employees can understand them better. Whether it is food, services, employee policies etc, the global requirements need to be considered in all operations. While cultural diversity and incorporating the trends of globalization is indispensable for the hotel industry, various cultural conflicts occur as a result of this cultural diversity. These misunderstandings are of various types and due to various reasons. Every culture has a different set of beliefs and norms and when people of different cultures come together and work, differences are bound to arise. These differences become more challenging in an industry where customers to be dealt with are also from different cultures and have different demands. While various inter-cultural challenges are faced, one such issue is the impact of cultural differences on the hierarchy of a hotel. People from poorer countries usually have lower positions and from the developed have higher positions. This creates a barrier amongst the higher and lower level employees and creates many problems regarding cultural differences as what one may think is right as part of their culture, the other might not. This study aims to determine the impact of cultural differences on the hierarchy of a hotel. The findings of this study would be very helpful in determining how the barrier between high and low-level employees can be reduced in the light of cultural differences. Cultural diversity if managed properly can help to increase organizational performance (Kemp & Dwyer, 2001). There are various levels in an organization where culture has an influence and where a higher degree of cultural awareness is essential (Roper & Brookes, 1997). This study would hence facilitate in understanding how this diversity can be managed in a batter way to become a pro rather than a con for a hotel. Finally, it would also aid in giving better understanding to hotel managements

Price control Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Price control - Essay Example Price control policies in history were put in place as portion of a larger income policy package while inducing wage controls as regulatory element. Price control takes two forms, a ceiling price (maximum) and the floor price (minimum) that can be charged in a market. These two forms of price control act as a regulatory element during shortages to prevent from market inflation (Rockoff, 67). The application of price control is comprehensible. However, price controls fail to safeguard many consumers and offend others. Controls hold out the promise of protecting individuals that are struggling to meet increased price. Therefore, the prohibition against moneylending, charging high interest on loans, is projected to protect individuals who are obligated to borrow out of desperation. For instance, the maximum price for bread was theoretical to protect the have-nots, who relied on bread for their survival. The rent controls were proposed policies to protect those who were renting when the demand for houses exceeded the supply thus; landlords were getting ready to â€Å"gouge prices† to their tenants (Stern, 140). Despite the appeal of frequent use of price controls, economists opposed them except in times of emergencies. According to statistics of 1992, 76.3% of the economists interviewed agreed with the slogan, â€Å"A ceiling on rents reduces the quality and quantity of house available.† An extension of 16.6% agreed with qualifications, and only 6.5% disagreed with the statement. Similar results were observed when the economists were interviewed about price controls: 8.4% agreed with the report: â€Å"Wage-price controls are a useful policy option in the control of inflation.† An extra 17.7% agreed with the results; however majority of the economist disagreed with the statement by 73.9% (Rockoff, 82). The main cause why majority of economists are cynical about price control is that they alter the allocation of resources. Remark made by an economist

On Defining Governance, Democracy and Decentralization Essay

On Defining Governance, Democracy and Decentralization - Essay Example Increasingly, among international organizations (such as the World Bank and the United Nations), governance is used as a concept to both provide a broad overview of and describe the way societies manage themselves. In the dialogue routinely engaged in by the United Nations and the World Bank "governance" is normally spoken of in terms of three systems - the political/administrative; the economic; and the civil society. When looking at governance from this perspective an important additional dimension is introduced into any discussion of the relationship between governance, democracy and decentralization because one is forced to pay attention to the significance of decentralization for economic development. This represents a very significant dimension in terms of the overall well-being of the society as a whole for it can be central to the defining of its development potential. Governance has also been described and dealt with, particularly in the past two decades, in terms of how to improve the functioning of the actual political/administrative system extant in a particular country. ... rnmental organization (which frequently means the downsizing of government bureaucracies); and the strong encouragement of transparency and accountability in government. There is obviously a long history of discussion about and consideration of what are the attributes of democracy and democratic governance. During the course of the past half century, most attention in this regard has focused upon four basic attributes. These include the conduct within a country of free and fair elections; the existence of a reasonably well-organized and competitive party system; a delineation of, respect for, and protection of basic civil liberties and human rights within the society; and, the encouragement, support of and active participation of a vigorous civil society and, in particular, strong interest groups. While democracy and its attributes have been the topic of much thought, writing and discussion, it is still the case that there are not totally precise measures of or delineations of where democratic governance begins or ends within a society. In fact, democracy is inevitably a "work in progress." The institutions and processes of democracy are constantly in a state of evolution. Such evolution is not always necessarily in a progressive or productive fashion. Clearly there are moments in almost all societies in which democratic processes and values suffer setbacks. Likewise, there are other times when what is normally evolutionary progress toward higher levels of democratic governance sometimes become dramatic movement. The concept of decentralization is perhaps a little less clearly defined in part because it is the newest of these concerns. One of the things that has added some misunderstanding to the debate and discussion over decentralization is the frequent

Blaise Thomas “Tom” Golisano Essay Example for Free

Blaise Thomas â€Å"Tom† Golisano Essay Blaise Thomas Tom Golisano is the founder of Paychex, the second-largest payroll processor in the United States. He also owns the Buffalo Sabres hockey team. He ran for governor of New York in 1994, 1998, and 2002. He lost all three elections but surprisingly defeated incumbent New York Governor George Pataki in the hotly contested 2002 elections. The founder of Paychex built a high-performing organization on an unconventional premise at the time: Hire people with the right attitude and then teach them the skills to do the job. But rapid growth in the 1990s showed Paychex that it needed a more systematic approach to reliably execute this philosophy throughout its geographically dispersed operations, especially at the important front line of customer service. The resulting solution  Ã‚  one that includes more sophisticated hiring practices, more extensive training and development, and multiple reinforcement mechanisms  Ã‚  still serves the company well today. He stands for good government, political reform and fair play.   In January 31, 2006 he announced his decision to no longer run for public office due to personal and professional reasons.   He is involved in many business interests, and will continue to remain active in Paychex and other entrepreneurial ventures.   He also said he will continue his philanthropic activity. He is still committed to the economic development of New York, as well as promoting responsible government. He has received many awards for his prowess in business: David T. Kearns Medal of Distinction recognizing significant achievements in business, public service and education, by the University of Rochesters William E. Simon Graduate School of Business Administration Rochester Business Hall of Fame (2001) The 1987 Herbert W. VandenBrul Entrepreneurial Award, presented by Rochester Institute of Technologys College of Business Master Entrepreneur award in Ernst Youngs Entrepreneur of the Year awards competition for Western New York Humanitarian of the Year Award, presented by the Boys Town of Italy, and the Commerce and Industry Award of the Rochester Chamber of Commerce. Outstanding Alumni Award from the American Association of Community Colleges He has been actively involved in a great deal of charitable work. In 1984, he founded the B. Thomas Golisano Foundation. His foundation awards grants to organizations dedicated to providing opportunities for those with disabilities and offering support to their families. In 2002, The University of Rochester re-named their pediatric hospital Golisano Childrens Hospital where he donated $14 million in March 6, 2006 as well as $6 million to Bishop Kearney High School and Our Lady of Mercy. Reference: Edited by Investor’s Business Daily. Profiles in Business Success 51 Top Leaders and How They Achieved Greatness.. New York: McGraw-Hill p. 50. Retrieved from the web:   http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Golisano   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     http://www.golisano.com http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgin/abstract/109792492/ABSTRACT?CRETRY=1RETRY=0

Belfast Travellers: Services and Policies

Belfast Travellers: Services and Policies Case Study – Belfast Travellers The case study examines the provision of accommodation and other services for the travelling community in the Belfast area over a 30 year time period. During this time many different agencies, including the Department of the Environment (DoE), the Belfast City Council (BCC), the Northern Ireland Housing Executive (NIHE) and a number of voluntary sector organizations, were involved in attempting to provide services to the travellers. This essay will examine the degree to which the travellers participated in specifying their needs and in designing policies to address them, and relate such consultation to different concepts of participation mentioned by Cornwall (2003). The concluding paragraph will evaluate the success, or otherwise, of such participation in delivering a sense of empowerment and self-reliance to the travelling community. Although community development has been a strategy of both statutory and voluntary sectors in Northern Ireland (NI) for many years[1], until relatively recently it does not seem to have been applied to the travelling community. This process works at a community level, through community groups and the appointment of local community development workers who â€Å"engage with the community to identify needs, raise issues, and develop programmes †¦ to address those needs†.[2] Although this strategy was no doubt consciously applied to the settled community, there is little evidence of it being used before 1992 with the travelling community. For example, the initial issues for providing accommodation for the travellers involved the provision of camping sites. At the Colin Glen site there were problems of overcrowding, compounded by the relocation to the site of families unrelated to those already there, which caused conflict between the groups. A contributing factor to this dete rioration was the lack of consultation with the travellers before moving additional families to the site. The entire site was eventually abandoned[3]. Initially the BCC provided sites, but these were often poorly serviced and were built without proper consultation. Responsibility for providing accommodation for travellers was later moved to the NIHE, and travellers were consulted about which families would be housed in group housing, developed through the use of housing associations.[4] However, they were not active in the running of the housing associations.[5] A report from 1980 titled Services for Travelling People in NI, issued by the Coordinating Committee for Social Problems, stated that the various voluntary sector agencies involved with the travelling community felt that they had effective policies, even though there had been no consultation with travellers.[6] More encouragingly, the Belfast Travellers Site Project (BTSP) was set up in 1985 with a committee consisting of 50 % travellers and 50% settled people. Its aims were to improve sites in Belfast and to have an input into policies regarding travellers in general.[7] In 1992 BTSP initiated a number of community-based activities, and one of their most important initiatives was that travellers were employed to work as community workers in their own communities. This initiative seems to fall within Cornwall’s description of â€Å"invited participation†.[8] Amongst the successes of the community development approach, the committee felt it had contributed to â€Å"an increase in the travellers’ sense of worth and the value of their particular culture†.[9] The state also played its part in trying to create an environment in which citizens could give input about issues affecting them. More attention was given to a rights-based approach to development, and in 1998 the Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission was established, which gave the travellers an opportunity to make official complaints.[10] This resonates with what the study guide has to say about the â€Å"concept of citizenship† [11] as well as with Cornwall’s concept of an â€Å"aware citizenry†[12] Probably the most important improvement in the possibilities for participation came from the creation of An Munia Tober ((The Good Road) in 2005, from an amalgamation of a number of smaller community groups. Their objectives are â€Å"to provide services and act as an advocate for travellers, as well as offering opportunities for travellers to be involved in their own development† [13] In general, the voluntary sector has been consistent in trying to encourage the travellers to share in decision making and to participate in the management of projects, and several agencies have included representatives from travellers. However, travellers still feel that there is insufficient consultation. Those that do participate often feel that their views are not given due weight. For this reason, groups that work with travellers continue to promote their active participation, and try to help them to obtain the skills they need to contribute effectively. A proposed â€Å"All Ireland study on Travellers†, due to have started in 2007, intended to train travellers as researchers. The intention was not only to teach new skills, but also to impart increased ownership, improve confidence, and thereby reduce any inhibitions against forcefully arguing their case. [14] The success or failure of the various interventions in obtaining participation from the travelling community, and thereby imbuing them with a sense of empowerment and self-reliance, is difficult to judge. Certainly, the failures to obtain input and participation resulted in notable disasters, such as at Colin Glen. The Traveller Movement (NI) concluded that there had been â€Å"a policy failure of staggering proportions† in the treatment of travellers in general.[15] However, the success of the NIHE in accommodating over 50% of the travellers in group housing, consulting with them about which families to house together, demonstrates that a participative approach can produce good results. The policies of the BTSP in employing travellers as community workers, and in involving greater numbers of travellers in educational and health related activities, have contributed to an improvement in their sense of worth. On balance, both the negative consequences of non-participation, and t he positive results from consultative approaches, tend to indicate that participation does contribute to a sense of empowerment and self-reliance. Bibliography Course Book Cornwall, A. (2003) Looking back to move forward in Cornwall, A. Beneficiary, Consumer, Citizen: Perspectives on Participation for Poverty Reduction, Stockholm, SIDA. Le Mare, A (2006) Belfast travellers: a case study of the provision of housing and services for the travelling community in Belfast Word Count: With footnotes:1065 Without footnotes:1006 1 Footnotes [1] Belfast Travellers, 2006: 7 [2] Belfast Travellers, 2006: 7 [3] Belfast Travellers, 2006: 9 [4] Belfast Travellers, 2006: 10 [5] Belfast Travellers, 2006: 15 [6] Belfast Travellers, 2006: 11 [7] Belfast Travellers, 2006: 11 [8] Cornwall, A. 2003: 76-7 [9] Belfast Travellers, 2006 12/13 [10] Belfast Travellers, 2006 14 [11] Course Book: 65 [12] Cornwall, A. 2003: 76 [13] Belfast Travellers, 2006: 16 [14] Belfast Travellers, 2006: 17 [15] Belfast Travellers, 2006: 13 Should The Governments Regulate The Internet? Should The Governments Regulate The Internet? In 20th centuries, number of net citizen is growing fast around the World. Survey conducted by Internet Usage Statistics shows that over twenty-five percent of world population are internet users [11]. Because of the internet popularizing trend, the importance of Internet censorship has also risen. As a result, I believe that the Internet should be regulated by the Governments. This article is going to discuss mainly three areas. They are social, economical and political. Exploring the advantages and disadvantages on implementing regulation on the Internet, by reviewing current situations between United States, China and Hong Kong, what regulation have been done on the Internet. I picked Hong Kong as my studied area, as it is my living place, it is necessary to be concerned. While Hong Kong is executing One Country Two System, my motherland China, carrying out one system only, is also reviewed in this article. United States, which is claimed to be a model country of advocate peoples freedom, is chosen for comparison as a role of foreign country. There would be different aspects and outcomes of regulating the Internet within these three countries. Followed by, my reason on supporting Government should regulate the Internet. Firstly, I am going to discuss social issue. Public health is one reason supporting regulation on the Internet. Nowadays, many pornography sites can be accessed easily by just clicking Im above 18.. Children would get sex and harmful information from these sites easily without parent guidance. Thus, Internet control has become important to protect children. In United States, Communications Decency Act (CDA), established in 1996, regulates on offensive and obscenity content [23]. For Hong Kong, there is also law for obscene and violence control. It is called Control of Obscene and Indecent Articles Ordinance (Chapter 390) [14]. According to South Sina News (2007), a Hong Kong netizen, Mr. Woo, was sentenced as he published obscene links on the Internet [13]. When compare to Chinese Government, they only have some agreements on Internet control, there is no a concrete law that the internet censorship should follows. Thus, internet censorship in China is mainly held by filtering systems , or firewall. A common blocking system in China would be Green Dam Youth Escort (Green Dam) [20]. It is designed to filter illegal contents. Start from May, 2009, the software is required to pre-install in personal computers produced by China. The system protects children from violence and pornography. Problem of cyber-bullying is also one factor affecting public health. It causes psychological harm to netizens. In America, Megan Taylor Meier was committed suicide because a friends mother, Lori Drew. She humiliated Megan. Drew created a male account named Josh Evans, and bully Megan on the Internet. After investigation, Lori Drew was caught. This is not the only case that would cause psychological harm. In Hong Kong, net citizens would post persons data on the internet when they think the person is misconducted. Privacy like phone numbers, address, working place, etc., is exposed. Daily lives of many victims are badly affected. They are afraid to be recognized outside home. Tsui Yu Hin [5] is one of victims in Hong Kong. He was insulted by netizens pushing his pregnant girlfriend down elevator. Netizens setup a facebook group blaming his misbehavior. This affair was interrupting Tsuis living, he kept receiving disturbing phone calls. Cyber-bullying would cause victims more depressi on, negative impact on working or academic performance, extreme violent behavior such as murder or committed suicide. To prevent cyber-bullying, American has established the Megan Meier Cyber-bullying Prevention Act, this is one of the first cyber-bullying laws that protects children and adults from disturbs. This is a case that showing netizens are needed to take consequences for what they have done on the internet. I believe it is a good way to lighten the problem of cyber-bullying. Chinese and Hong Kong Government should follow the actions taken of U.S. Secondly, the economy issue is discussed. Foreign-invested enterprise, such as Google, Yahoo, Facebook, etc., that are widely-used, has potential to strengthen the links between countries and global economy. Businesses such as mobile phones connecting Google, are being popular. Besides, companies can gain from owning the copyright. Protecting copyright would help providing a fair competition environment. As a result, Governments establish laws to accuse infringing on Copyrights currently, including film industry, music industry, etc., mainly related to creativity. One law in United States, Anti-cybersquatting Consumer Protection Act (ACPA) of 1999, [21], legislate the registration of domain names with trademarks. Though Hong Kong does not have same law, there is another potential law for protecting rights of trademark owners. The Intellectual Property Department [7] is set up to handle copyright, designs, personal intellectual properties and trademarks. Rules correlated to Trade Mark s Ordinance, Patents Ordinance, and Personal Data (Privacy) Ordinance are introduced to protect creativity and balance the interest of the right owners and society. CHAN Nai Ming, a Hong Kong citizen, was jailed as he uploaded Hollywood films onto the Internet, while it is violating the copyright. While in China, there is also copyright registry on the website of National Copyright Administration of the Peoples Republic of China [12]. It is clear that regulating internet by the Government could be beneficial to economy factor. Lastly, political issue is discussed. Sensitive contents, mainly related to religion and politics, are usually filtered. In United States, Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act (FISA) was introduced on May 18, 1977. [22]. It limits foreign governments, groups, or individuals (e.g. spies), that would cause international terrorism, and attacks. It prevents citizens to perform illegal activities. In China, filtering is required for protecting citizen from misconduct contents. MySpace China is one of the samples applied filtering. [2]. Sensitive topics are filtered, for example, Taiwan independence. In MySpace China, there is an abused report function for users. Abused account would be block when found that the abuse is true. This could help catching illegal netizens. Chinese Government would even interfere in administration of company or limit individuals freedom. Huang Qi [10][18], a website owner criticized the role of government in the student massacre June 4th 1989 in his website. G overnment considered his website content as illegal, as a result, Huang Qi was arrested on 3 June 2000, and facts stated on his website were blocked. In 2009, thousands of protesters took to the streets in Xinjiang Riot. Officials reported that protesters made use of Twitter/Facebook to gather themselves in Xinjiang Province. Many unauthorized postings on local sites and Google were limited by censors during and after the riots. Based on BBC News, search engine Google was blocked by China [1][3]. It was because China requested Google to filter controversial materials but Google denied. As a result, there is no Google.cn found on the internet. This shows that, when filtering or blocking is carried out, information transmission is limited. This would be beneficial to the Government. By controlling the access right, negative information about the government can be blocked. By looking at the cases in China and America, they show that filtering and setting up laws can help protecting national security, keeping netizens away from getting offending information. However, on the Internet users point of view, filtering would have an impact on getting updated news because filtering may block more than expected. Lots of useful information may be blocked. The regulation is far from perfect. Though there is such disadvantage, I believe internet should still be regulated by the government. When compared the level of internet censorship between Hong Kong and China, it is less strict in Hong Kong. Net citizens in Hong Kong have rooms to criticize the Government on the Internet, which would help monitoring the Government. When Hong Kong Government was introducing 2012 Act Now, net citizens were teasing by creating similar slogan and logo 2012 All Wrong. Though the censorship level is lower, there are still laws managing the disciplines on the internet. According to Ming Pao Newspaper (2008), netizen spread the message Hong Kong will become a city of SARS [4][6]. Large numbers of people were frightened and thus bought and stored rice bulkily. The netizen was sentenced Access to computer with criminal or dishonest intent [9][24]. It shows that net citizens are still required to take responsibilities. To summarize, internet censorship would be beneficial on social, economical and political areas, protecting privacy and intelligence property, keeping social order and public health. It is clear that Internet-censorship is necessary as Governments in different countries are already taking actions to control the Internet. Despite the advantages, in my point of view, Governments should regulate the Internet because it is more effective to carry out the disciplines from top-down strategy. Followed by, having the cooperation from other roles, such as webmaster. To me, an effective regulation should extend to set up laws only. Citizens would know that he/she need to take consequence even on virtual world. Person violating laws would be arrested, where there is room for the freedom of speech on the Internet. In conclusion, regulation is beneficial on many aspects. It could help protecting privacy and intelligence property, keeping social order and public health. Though Internet censorship is a difficult task to perform, it is a necessary action taken.

Pros and Cons of Pharmaceutical Patents

Pros and Cons of Pharmaceutical Patents Pros and Cons of Pharmaceutical Patents Considering that patents were originally designed to protect the work of an individual, and that in the pharmaceutical industry it is usually the company that hold the patent rights, what is the theoretical justification of maintaining the current system. Consider only the US market and use models that address the issue from an economic perspective This essay concerns the advantages and disadvantages of patents in the USA. Broadly, two main arguments stem from the idea of patents in relation to the American pharmaceutical market. One is that, since patents were designed to give protection to the work of the individual the idea that patents are now used to confer rights on third parties such as pharmaceutical companies is a situation which is undesirable because it goes beyond how patents were originally intended to function. The second argument defends the rights of third parties such as pharmaceutical companies to be protected under patent laws on the basis that this function of a patent has evolved pragmatically and remains to be an important element of patenting rights law in the USA. Various economic arguments have been advanced in support of the later argument, whereas various ideological and economic arguments have been advanced to support the traditional interpretation of how a patent should function and in what circumst ances. This essay will consider these arguments in depth. As a prelude to this analysis however, the idea of a patent will be defined and explained, and there will be a discussion regarding models of patent functioning. A patent Patents are rights granted, endorsed and enforced by government[1]. The rights associated with patents are exclusive rights and these prevent others from selling, manufacturing, making, advertising or otherwise using the invention or idea over which an individual has a patent[2]. Grubb (1999) gives us the following definition of patents: ‘A patent may be defined as a grant by the state of exclusive rights for a limited time in respect of new†¦useful invention. These rights are in general limited to the territory of the state granting the patent, so that an inventor wishing protection in a number of countries must obtain separate patents†¦[3]’. Patents have been compared with property rights as patents effectively convey rights which are akin to property rights to the patent holder[4]. Importantly, in the context of this question, a patent or certain rights associated with it may be legally transferred to another[5]. The process of obtaining a patent involves compiling a detailed specification of the idea or invention which the patent is sought in respect of. This procedure makes it more clear what the patent holder will regard as an infringement of their patent rights. In the USA, this process of description and specification is referred to as the patent specification. This patent specification must comply with national patent laws. Attempts have been made to ensure that patent laws are applied with uniformity on an international level[6]. These attempts have been organised, in large part by the World Trade Organisation[7]. Why do patents exist in the pharmaceutical market? Without patents, there would be no incentive for inventors to divulge their ideas and inventions to the general public. Where inventors of drugs and pharmaceutical innovations are concerned; without the protection which patenting offers, there would be no incentive, firstly for the inventor to devote time and effort to the formulation of their invention, since others could so easily replicate it and secondly an absence of patenting could encourage inventors to protect their ideas through secrecy and non-disclosure[8]. Therefore, an absence of patenting laws can be tied indirectly with the thwarting of innovation and with the thwarting of the disclosure of technological advances to the general public[9]. Some advocates of patents have argued that the process of patenting contributes to the economy, since it encourages companies to invest in research and development[10]. The absence of patents imputes the converse of this rationale. The reason for this is that companies invest in research and development because the development of technological advancement can be productised and marketed; often generating huge profits for the company with successful research and development projects. Patenting makes this productisation process very profitable, since the patenting process ensures that others do not replicate the product concerned to gain a share of the potential profits[11]. This creates an incentive for companies to invest money in research and development and this investment leads to technological advancement[12]. The incentive would not exist without the protections which patents can provide. Critics of patenting processes also argue that patents encourage monopolies[13]. Companies, for example pharmaceutical companies who patent drugs can sell those drugs at quite high prices. The process of competition would ordinarily discourage this method of artificial pricing, but the operation of a patent can preclude most forms of competition[14]. Patents have also been critiqued given that they preclude competition even where another inventor has created the same or a similar product using independent methods. The theoretical justification for maintaining patents in their current form in the pharmaceutical market Patents are particularly important within the pharmaceutical industry in America. As explained above there are large costs involved in the research and development process. Conaway (2003) illustrates this: ‘The Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America, the pharmaceutical industry’s trade association, estimates that the U.S. pharmaceutical industry spent over $30 billion just on research and development in 2001†¦.In total, each new drug that makes it to market can cost half a billion dollars to develop†¦[15]’. As Conaway goes on to argue[16], this means that where innovations are discovered in the pharmaceutical industry, the profits which emanate from this have to be maximised to make the large levels of research and development investments worthwhile. These constraints are what make patents in the pharmaceutical industry so important, as without patents, technological innovations in the pharmaceutical field can be pirated, which in turn thwarts profit. How can this be reconciled with the idea that patents were intended to protect the work of the individual, which was the original function of a patent? The answer is that it does not have to be reconciled in this way, since patents continue to protect the work of the individual, albeit in a more complex way. To see how the current system continues to operate to protect the work of the individual one simply has to unravel the dynamics of corporate pharmaceutical processes and examine them more closely. As we have seen in the last section, the rights in patents are in many ways akin to property rights. These rights are transferable. Individual inventors may transfer, license or otherwise confer patent rights upon corporate pharmaceutical actors. This transfer benefits the individual inventor, since the individual can expect to be remunerated in exchange for the patent rights or in exchange for certain rights in patents. Therefore the current system continues to protect the work of the individual, albeit indirectly. Where an individual who works within industry invents a patentable idea, and they have invented it through the use of the research and development money/resources available from their employers or sponsors, the individual often waives their rights to claim an interest in the idea they create, since it would not have been possible to do this without the investment of the employer/sponsor. It may not be reasonable to expect a patent to operate to protect the work of the individual in these circumstances since the individual no longer has an individual claim to the invention. In these circumstances the patent may be held by the pharmaceutical company, as individuals can only legitimately expect to have an individual claim to the patent rights where the idea is the product of purely their own efforts and investment. In another indirect way however, this arrangement does operate to protect the work of the individual since, although the individual may have waived their rights to claim indi vidual patent rights, these individuals are often engaged in high income jobs. Another example of why there is a theoretical justification for the current system involving the protection of the rights of the individual in the pharmaceutical market is as follows. It is also often the case that inventors in the pharmaceutical industry in the USA want to concentrate their efforts on what they are good at, which involves the research and development of new drugs. The idea of patents which protect the work of individuals therefore still exists since many inventors wish to transfer their interest in the invention in exchange for remuneration. The inventor would not be remunerated were it not possible to transfer patent rights in this way. Therefore, the patent operates to protect the rights of the individual before the transfer occurs. It is surely reasonable to sanction the idea that the individual may then use this benefit in the way that he or she sees fit. This essay has discussed the pros and cons of patents in the pharmaceutical industry. It has explained the rationale behind economic models which advocate and repudiate the modern operation of patent rules and laws. However, this system works and although it represents a deviation from the original conception of patent law; pointing to this deviation in itself is not enough to effectively critique the transition. This is because patents continue to protect the work of the individual. This usually happens in a more indirect way, but this system has not disenfranchised the individual. Therefore systems of patent transfer and the processes where patents are used have evolved pragmatically and these processes continue to protect the interests of individuals, albeit in a more complex way. Bibliography Books ROBERT A. BLACKBURN, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY AND INNOVATION MANAGEMENT IN SMALL FIRMS (Routledge 2003). MATTHIAS BRANDI-DOHRN, STEPHAN GRUBER AND IAN MUIR, EUROPEAN PATENT LAW: LAW AND PROCEDURE UNDER THE EPC AND PCT (Oxford University Press 1999). PHILIP J. CURTIS, THE FALL OF THE U.S. CONSUMER ELECTRONICS INDUSTRY: AN AMERICAN TRADE TRAGEDY (Quorum Books 1994). WAYNE CREWS AND ADAM THIERER, COPY FIGHTS: THE FUTURE OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IN THE INFORMATION AGE (Cato Institute 2002). BOB DEMATTEIS AND ANDY GIBBS, ESSENTIALS OF PATENTS (Wiley 2003) PHILIP W. GRUBB, PATENTS FOR CHEMICALS, PHARMACEUTICALS, AND BIOTECHNOLOGY: FUNDAMENTALS OF GLOBAL LAW, PRACTICE, AND STRATEGY (Oxford University Press 1999). J. W. HARRIS, PROPERTY AND JUSTICE (Clarendon Press 1996). RICHARD T. HOLZMANN, INFRINGEMENT OF THE UNITED STATES PATENT RIGHT: A GUIDE FOR EXECUTIVES AND ATTORNEYS (Quorum Books 1995). VALENTINE KORAH, TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER AGREEMENTS AND THE EC COMPETITION RULES (Oxford University Press 1996). PAUL LERNER AND ALEXANDER POLTORAK, ESSENTIALS OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY (Wiley 2002). DUNCAN MATTHEWS, GLOBALISING INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS: THE TRIPS AGREEMENT (Routledge 2002) DUDLEY F. PEGRUM, THE REGULATION OF INDUSTRY (Richard D. Irwin 1949). WILLIAM HYDE PRICE, THE ENGLISH PATENTS OF MONOPOLY (Harvard University Press 1913). Article CARRIE CONAWAY, TOO MUCH OF A GOOD THING CAN BE BAD (Published at: > 2003). 1 Footnotes [1] PHILIP W. GRUBB, PATENTS FOR CHEMICALS, PHARMACEUTICALS, AND BIOTECHNOLOGY: FUNDAMENTALS OF GLOBAL LAW, PRACTICE, AND STRATEGY 3 (Oxford University Press 1999). [2] RICHARD T. HOLZMANN, INFRINGEMENT OF THE UNITED STATES PATENT RIGHT: A GUIDE FOR EXECUTIVES AND ATTORNEYS 11 (Quorum Books 1995). [3] PHILIP W. GRUBB, PATENTS FOR CHEMICALS, PHARMACEUTICALS, AND BIOTECHNOLOGY: FUNDAMENTALS OF GLOBAL LAW, PRACTICE, AND STRATEGY 3 (Oxford University Press 1999). [4] J. W. HARRIS, PROPERTY AND JUSTICE 3 (Clarendon Press 1996). [5] BOB DEMATTEIS AND ANDY GIBBS, ESSENTIALS OF PATENTS 21 (Wiley 2003) [6] MATTHIAS BRANDI-DOHRN, STEPHAN GRUBER AND IAN MUIR, EUROPEAN PATENT LAW: LAW AND PROCEDURE UNDER THE EPC AND PCT 11 (Oxford University Press 1999). [7] DUNCAN MATTHEWS, GLOBALISING INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS: THE TRIPS AGREEMENT 7 (Routledge 2002) [8] WAYNE CREWS AND ADAM THIERER, COPY FIGHTS: THE FUTURE OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY IN THE INFORMATION AGE 17 (Cato Institute 2002). [9] PHILIP J. CURTIS, THE FALL OF THE U.S. CONSUMER ELECTRONICS INDUSTRY: AN AMERICAN TRADE TRAGEDY xiv (Quorum Books 1994). [10] ROBERT A. BLACKBURN, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY AND INNOVATION MANAGEMENT IN SMALL FIRMS 35 (Routledge 2003). [11] PAUL LERNER AND ALEXANDER POLTORAK, ESSENTIALS OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY 89 (Wiley 2002). [12] DUDLEY F. PEGRUM, THE REGULATION OF INDUSTRY 2 (Richard D. Irwin 1949). [13] WILLIAM HYDE PRICE, THE ENGLISH PATENTS OF MONOPOLY 1-10 (Harvard University Press 1913). [14] VALENTINE KORAH, TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER AGREEMENTS AND THE EC COMPETITION RULES 250 (Oxford University Press 1996). [15] CARRIE CONAWAY, TOO MUCH OF A GOOD THING CAN BE BAD 2 (Published at: > 2003). [16] CARRIE CONAWAY, TOO MUCH OF A GOOD THING CAN BE BAD 2 (Published at: > 2003).

Hitlers Foreign Policy :: essays research papers fc

Assignment: Give an account of Hitler’s foreign policy, using the following headings: (A) Defiance of the Versailles Treaty (B) Relations with Italy (C) Territorial Expansion Defiance of the Versailles Treaty After the First World War, Germany signed a peace treaty with France and Britain. Among the 440 Articles were: * Germany lost Posen, the Polish Corridor and part of Upper Silesia to Poland. * Germany lost the Sudetenland to Czechoslovakia * Germany lost Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium * Germany lost North Schleswig to Denmark * Germany lost Alsace Lorraine to France * Germany lost all its overseas colonies * Saarland was under LN control and after 15 years the people could vote if they wanted to belong to Germany or France * The Rhineland was to be demilitarised * The army was reduced to 100,000 * Germany could have no submarines, no airforce and no heavy artillery * Germany had to pay major Reparations. In percentages: Germany lost 10% of its land, 100% of its colonies, 12.5% of its population 16% of its coal fields and 50% of its iron and steel industry. The main terms of the Versailles treaty Hitler (like most Germans) hated the Versailles Treaty and he didn’t want to follow the rules made by it. In fact, step by step he broke the laws. The first step he took was to increase the German army. Germany was only allowed to have an army of 100,000 men, no airforce, no tanks and no submarines. But in an interview with the Daily Mail on March 9, 1935, Goering revealed that there was a German airforce. One weak later Germany also announced that it had an army of 500,000 men. France and England didn’t even object to this. In 1936 Germany signed a treaty with England saying that Germany was allowed a navy one third the size of the British navy. Germany was rearming fast. It wasn’t hard thanks to the good economic growth. But the rearmament was so expensive that in 1936 it was clear that Germany was soon to go into an economic crisis if nothing was done. There wasn’t a better time to test the Versailles Treaty because the international situation was very fortunate to Hitler. Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia proved that the League of Nation (LN) was worthless. It also focussed Anglo-French diplomacy on Italy. After some years, Italy became weak because of the economic sanctions from Britain and France and the public opinion in France and Britain was still very anti-war.

Saving American Agriculture Essay -- Agriculture Agricultural Economic

Saving American Agriculture American agriculture has changed dramatically since the first days of mechanized equipment and large-scale crop production. â€Å"Many conceived of farming as a rewarding life . . . and a source of moral virtue† (Mariola, 2005). While presently, many view farming as purely economic in purpose. It has been stated that farming in America is decreasing more quickly than any other occupation. Yet, population increases steadily, making agriculture all the more essential. Many current issues are affecting agricultural progress in America; basic concerns over water, land, and climate only begin to describe the complex predicament. Economics, as well as public involvement and education are important tools, needed to save American agriculture. Water is the chief resource for agricultural production. One historical dilemma between farming and water occurs when misapplication of chemicals and nutrients leach into the ground water table, or run off to rivers and streams, polluting this vital resource. â€Å"Twenty-five years after the Clean Water Act (CWA) was passed . . . [it was reported] that nearly 40% of waters were too polluted for basic uses† (Secchi et al, 2005). Projects to rehabilitate and conserve water often prove complex and expensive. Comprehensive understanding of the opportunity costs involved in management projects is key to forming an efficient conservation strategy. Similarly, it will be imperative to transition out-dated agricultural attitudes and routines towards new sustainable practices. The greatest motivation for this shift may be in the form of government subsidies and rewards for progressive, sustainable water management practices on agricultural lands. Favorable climate is another key... ...3. Secchi, S., Gassman, P.W., Jha, M., Kurkalova, L., Feng, H.H., Campbell, T., & Kling, C. (2005). The cost of clean water: Assessing agricultural pollution reduction at the watershed scale. Center for Agricultural and Rural Development, Retrieved March 26, 2007, from http://www.card.iastate.edu Lamptey, B.L., Barron, E.J., & Pollard, D. (2005). Impacts of agriculture and urbanization on the climate of the northeastern United States. Global and Planetary Change. 49, 203-221. Cox, L.A. Jr., Popken, D.A., VanSickle, J.J., & Sahu, R. (2005). Optimal Tracking and Testing of U.S. and Canadian Herds for BSE: A Value-of-Information (VOI) Approach. Risk Analysis, 25, 827-839. Hwang, Y., Roe, B., & Teisl, M. (2005). An Empirical Analysis of United States Consumers' Concerns About Eight Food Production and Processing Technologies. AgBioForum. 8(1), 40-49.

Underlying Normal Traits Within Abnormal Personality Disorders

Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS Underlying Normal Traits within Abnormal Personality Disorders Student University April 11, 2010 Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS Abstract Scholars have argued for decades concerning the fact that there are normal personality traits underlying abnormal personality traits in people who exhibit dysfunctional personalities. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition is the determinative guide on the descriptions of these personality characteristics, and it determined that there were everal models to be considered when looking for a universal clinical definition of abnormal personality. Researchers used either the Big Four, Big Five or other models to describe what an abnormal personality consisted of and how it related to a normal personality as studied. Researchers measured personality differences based on qualitative, quantitative and other key factor diffe rences to determine normal or abnormal functioning personalities. It was difficult to determine one substantive definition, as the traits overlapped from normal to abnormal characteristics noted. Later, the definition of personality dysfunctions included life skills, personal tasks and life goals, and whether the individual was able to function as a member of his society, while meeting the expectations of that society. A person’s maladaptiveness and evolutionary sense were added as part of the definition of whether the personality was normal or abnormal, and whether a person had the skill to be able to manage personal relationships were considered as well in the general definition of abnormal personality. Today, treatment options are expanded from the traditional therapy treatments to include drug therapies, psychodynamic herapy, day hospital intervention, and dialectical behavior therapy. To date, day hospital interventions have proved very successful on non-schizophrenic patients suffering from abnormal personality traits. Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS Introduction Scholars have argued for decades concerning the fact that there are normal personality traits underlying abnormal personality traits in people who exhibit dysfunctional personalities. Recently, scholars have begun to make an argument that current category systems of personality isorders (PDs) should be substituted by trait dimensional scheme designations in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 2000). Experts are leaning towards using a Big Four model, which are â€Å"essentially maladaptive variants of the Big Five traits of normal personality, minus Openness† (Watson, 1545). In a discussion of this issue by Watson, Clark and Chmielewski, they state that the newly comprised Big Four model excludes odd or eccentric Cluster A PDs, (Watson, 1545) and that their results noted from three studies show a relationship examining the actors of normal and abnormal personalities. Their results established that the Oddity factor was considered more broad than the Cluster A tr aits and more distinct from Openness and other Big Five models, which suggested â€Å"an alternative five factor model of personality pathology (considering only abnormal traits) and an expanded, integrated Big Six taxonomy that subsumes both normal and abnormal personality characteristics† (Watson, 1545). Model Theories The Watson study explains that the Big Four structure was a result of developed hierarchical models that combined general models, like the Big Three and the Big Five models. These former models of personality reviews included multidimensional factors reminiscent of Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS past personality inventories. When the Big Three and Big Five models were formally combined, it was apparent that â€Å"two higher order traits—Neuroticism/Negative Emotionality and Extraversion/Positive Emotionality—are included in both models† (Watson, 1547). Considering these changes, Watson proposes a â€Å"Big Four† theory which does not include Openness, but does include many of the traits of the other theories. Watson reports that their research on the Big Five heory also includes research on a Big Six taxonomy â€Å"that subsumes both normal and abnormal personality dimensions (Watson, 1551). Definitions of Abnormal Personalities Researchers have made recent discoveries that â€Å"abnormal personalities can be modeled as extremes of normal personality variation† (O’Connor & Doyc e, 2001) (Markon, p. 139). Even though researchers agree that it is possible to describe normal and abnormal personalities within the same frameworks, they disagree on the structure of what the framework will encompass. Even abnormal personality traits are seen now as a variant of the extremes that can happen when eviewing normal personalities. One way to make sense of the distinctions between normal and abnormal personalities is to describe personality disorders (PDs) and develop a working definition for them. By defining the traits for PDs, the researcher is able to develop a base for delineating personalities studied. Once normal traits are identified, abnormal traits need to be assessed. This can be done by reviewing the Big Five model of abnormal personalities. This is the juncture that normal and abnormal personalities overlap. Apparently, there are similar modeling structures that can be tilized to describe both normal and abnormal personalities. Some traits are very common R unning Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS between the two models, and others mimic similar personality descriptions. Meta-analytic Investigation Model One cohesive factor that applies to both normal and abnormal personalities is the meta- analytic investigation model. This model was proposed by O’Connor in 2002, and it stated that there were structural relationships between normal and abnormal personalities (Markon, p. 142). The O’Connor study in 2002 reviewed 37 personality and psychopathology inventories to etermine if dimensional structure differences existed between clinical and nonclinical respondents (O’Connor B. P. , 2002). O’Connor found similarity between normal and abnormal populations reviewed and measured similarities â€Å"both in the number of factors that exist in the data matrices and in the factor pattern† (O’Connor B. P. , 2002). The ten abnormal behavior disorders listed by the DSM-IV are listed as: paranoid, schizoid, schizotypal, antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic, avoidant, dependent, and obsessive–compulsive† (Livesley & Jang, p. 258). Each of these disorders shows traits, and it is he way that professional clinicians are able to make accurate diagnoses of abnormal personality traits of their patients. This listing of traits by the DSM, showed that the distinction between what was considered normal and what was considered abnormal was often defined by distinguishing the â€Å"qualitative distinction between the two† (Livesley & Jang, p. 258). Unfortunately, in truth researchers have come to find out that there are no true separations between normal and abnormal disorders, and they are hard pressed to find the dividing lines between the two entities. O’Connor asked whether the distinction can be made using former Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS models, and what exactly was normal or abnormal personality disorder. When the conceptual distinctions between the two were reviewed, there are several models to note. The most noteworthy working model being that there was â€Å"no evidence of discontinuity in the distributions of 100 traits selected to provide a systematic representation of personality disorder† (Livesley & Jang, p. 259). In other words, there was no concrete evidence that the researchers would consistently find traits that were exclusively common or descriptive of a specific personality disorder. In fact, personality disorders were measured across normal and control groups. The findings were that there were similarities within the disorder traits and that some equaled normal and others disordered personality traits. In this way, the researchers queried whether disorder traits could be seen in normal personalities. The answer was that there were few solid frameworks to make the decision which would provide a definitive answer to the question. In effect, extreme ends of the traits seemed to be deemed disorders, while extreme variations alone may not have been considered enough to state that a personality disorder actually existed. Quantitative Differences in Normal and Abnormal Personalities Quantitative differences exist between the normal and abnormal personality. The differences often mix up and muddle the personality traits and the disorders apparent within them. With personality disorders, often â€Å"it is difficult to see how an extreme score on dimensions such as conscientiousness, extraversion, or agreeableness is necessarily pathological. Researchers agreed that there were to be other additional factors that needed be present to justify the diagnosis (Livesley & Jang, p. 262). That additional trait is inflexibility and subjective Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS distress (Livesley & Jang, p. 259). The character trait of inflexibility is defined as one where the person has extreme traits, but not necessarily only an extreme position noted on any given trait. For example, a person who is extremely open and gregarious, but then is not able to tone down his personality when necessary would be an example of this trait. Continuing with this example, what would make the person who is considered otherwise outgoing and spontaneous a person who is suffering from a personality disorder? Maladaptive Personalities The answer may come from prior work done by researchers who were determining personality and abnormal personality disorders. Extreme actions alone were not enough to say the person operated outside of â€Å"normal† personality parameters. The researchers at the time believed that personality disorders were the result of someone suffering from an abnormal variation of a personality being studied. It was measured in how much the person suffered from the disorder. This is where the theory of maladaptation or dyscontrolled impairment came into play (Widiger & Trull, 1991; Widiger & Sankis, 2000). The reason the researchers sought a generalized definition is that without one, they â€Å"would have to catalogue the various maladaptive manifestations of each trait† (Livesley & Jang, p. 263). This was a difficult proposition, since even â€Å"normal† people were prone to exhibit maladaptive traits at some time in their lives. Another problem came with the idea of traits as one certain set of behaviors that were noted on subjects clinically or otherwise. Extreme exhibitions of a trait may show some measureable amount of psychopathology, but were not exclusively indicative of being considered classically maladaptive. In this way, the researchers determined Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS that the â€Å"definition of personality disorder needs to incorporate features of disorder that are separate from, although possibly correlated with, extreme trait variation† (Livesley & Jang, p. 263). Harmful Dysfunctional Traits in Personalities These descriptions of personality were necessary because there were more than these factors to consider when determining a personality disorder. In fact, personality was considered to be â€Å"a system of interrelated structures and processes† (Costa & McCrae, 1994; Mischel, 1999; Vernon, 1964) which included a person’ dispositional traits, motives, coping mechanisms, and ability to tame impulses are part of the process of determining normal or abnormal indications of personality. In other words, if these traits were considered â€Å"harmful dysfunctions,† (Wakefield, 1992; Livesley & Jang, p. 263) they consisted of harmful traits that were underlying natural functions. So, the definition of a personality disorder can be considered a harmful dysfunction in the normally adaptive functions of a person’s personality system (Livesley & Jang, p. 263) Another issue within the developing studies of personality disorders was that personality functions were considered to be seen as disturbed in individuals who exhibited personality disorders. Researcher Cantor described a person’s personality as the types of tasks a person sets as personal goals, and they way the person looks at his or her â€Å"self, and life situations, and the strategies used to achieve personal tasks† (Livesley & Jang, p. 263). This delineation of personality traits offered a true to form definition of what a personality disorder consisted of for the individual suffering from it. It was considered of a higher order than simply a dysfunction of a personality trait. Here it was described as needing to concentrate on life tasks as the Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS determining factor to determining if an individual had a personality disorder, and was therefore considered abnormal in terms of functioning personality. The researchers assumed that as a person lives his life, he orders his tasks as to what he sets as priorities for completing goals and meeting the needs of his immediate surrounding community and culture. This comes under the order of living in society and meeting the expectations of people who live near the individual, or a way of fitting in within his community. It also had to do with the person’s mean biology, or biological features characteristic of the individual. In fact, these tasks did vary depending on where the person lived and what the person had do to be able to survive in his culture. These may come under the umbrella of life skills, and they are definitely different considering where a person lived or had grown up. For example, a person who grew up in a small native Alaskan out island would have different life skills that ould a person who grew up and lived in a borough of Manhattan, NY. The two personalities of these individuals might be similar, but their life skills would be developed in obviously different ways. The person living in the native island village would have an understanding of the elements and what is necessary for bare-bones survival in possibly e xtreme conditions. While, the person who grew up in the city would have to understand how to be â€Å"street smart† and may need to know how to survive in even a potentially violent atmosphere if the neighborhood suggested those skills were essential to survive on a daily basis. Each individual may otherwise be soft spoken, or be considered similarly warm-hearted or kind. But decidedly, their life skills would separate them and put them a world away from each other in what they knew and needed to depend on to survive in their environment on a daily basis. Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS Universal Tasks Underlying Personality Traits The researchers then understood that there would need to be a set of universal tasks that needed to be identified. These universal tasks were considered of â€Å"evolutionary significance† nd featured four universal challenges as set by Plutchik (1980). These were the four ways a person’s identity was developed and they included: the solution to the problems of dominance and submissiveness created by hierarchy that is characteristic of primate social hierarchies; development of a sense of territoriality or belongingness; and solution to the problems of temporality, that is, problems of loss and separation. This allowed the researchers studying personality disorders to come to the conclusion that personality disorders prevented an individual from managing the adaptive answers or solutions hat were considered universally applicable to everyone, or a person’s life tasks. When an individual had a deficit in any of these areas, there was a noted â€Å"harmful dysfunction† and the person was unable to adapt to be able to function in his environment or society. The life tasks then seen as either being fulfilled or being abandoned by the individual, probably because of this identified deficit. Personality disorder was seen as different from other disorders by the fact that these failures â€Å"should be enduring and traceable to adolescence or at least early adulthood and hey should be due to extreme personality variation rather than another pervasive and chronic mental disorder such as a cognitive or schizophrenic disorder† (Livesley & Jang, p. 26 4). Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS Evolutionary Sense Within Personality Traits There was talk of the individual not being able to adapt to his environment in an â€Å"evolutionary sense† which spoke to whether the person had garnered enough skills for ensuring adaptive social behavior to allow reproduction and survival (Livesley & Jang, p. 264). This was xplained as stating that the adaptive traits would contribute to the person adapting to his environment and society in general, and the person adapting to his family unit would move the person towards being able to rear children and eventually reproduce to pass down his traits to offspring later on. This is the general definition of people who have self confidence in their dealings with others, and are able to live in harmony in stable relationships, while becoming productive members within their society or community. These can be seen to be part of the ancestral or evolutionary needs of ev ery individual, whether the person had an abnormal ersonality or normal personality. The more common description of an abnormal personality comes from what the common person observes when someone has problems dealing within a relationship. Rutter (1987) stated that personality disorders were characterized by â€Å"persistent, pervasive abnormality in social relationships and social functioning generally† (Rutter, p. 454). Also, Tyrer (2001) stated that â€Å"we do not necessarily need to know everything about someone's personality to recognise the elements that make it disordered† (Tyrer, p. 83). Tyrer states quite honestly that psychiatrists iew these descriptive axioms as something to be deferred, and says â€Å"personality disorder and mental retardation are stigmatic terms that psychiatrists like to avoid† (Tyrer, p. 83). So the question is, how can one determine the underlying normality within the abnormal Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONA LITY DISORDERS personality? For this the clinician and the layperson need review the DSM-III, considered the premier source of personality disorder classification (American Psychiatric Association, 1980). The DSM classifies what is considered normal and abnormal in terms of personality. The professionals in the field disagree to the proposed stereotyping of this group of classifications, on the basis of the fact that such profiling is considered â€Å"quite inappropriate in such a complicated field† (Tyrer, p. 84). In fact, it appears that there are burgeoning alternative and substitute classifications being used for determining personality disorders in surveys, trials, studies and private practice. Most people would be surprised to find out that this topic has been heatedly debated over the past two decades. Many people most likely assume that there is one clinical efinition of what is normal, and what is not normal when it comes to personality disorders. The media plays into this, as well as the television and movie plots. The person seen as abnormal is cloaked in symbolic black, speaks in a raspy voice or has otherwise obvious mentally deviant behaviors that even the least sophisticated person in the audience could confidently label as the â€Å"bad guy. † Personality Disorders Studied Abroad Even the study of personality disorders abroad have led researchers to agree to disagree in the area of determining how to describe profiles for patients with underlying normal traits within heir abnormal personality profiles. In a study performed by McCrae (2001) in The People’s Republic of China, 1,909 psychiatric patients were examined to determine the accuracy of the hypotheses determined from the Interpretive Report of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (McCrae, p. 155). The researchers determined that the PDs were not separate categories that Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS could be determined in a vacuum. They realized that they needed to consider a more comprehensive and forgiving system of personality traits, to be considered an accurate measure f the patient’s personality issues and concerns. The researchers found that the personality traits of the patients did not fit into the DSM-IV defined traits. They did â€Å"draw on the same five underlying personality traits† (McCrae, p. 171), and were considered redundant, but there were several areas of overlap to be considered conclusive. In fact, over 60% of the patients that were being treated for maladaptive personalities were not meeting the criteria defined in the DSM-IV, as relating to any criteria for a PD (McCrae, p. 171). The maladaptive behaviors, the person’s habits and personal attitudes were all measured o find a comprehensive scale for measuring the personality traits of the patients. It was determined that the results were insignificant, and concluded that personality profiles were â€Å"modest predictors of categorical PDs, but they are immensely informative about people† (McCrae, p. 172). Treatment Options for Abnormal Personality Traits But clinicians and psychiatrists are still interested in treating and helping people who exhibit the traits of these personality disorders identified above. They are in disagreement whether there are normal traits that are underlying the abnormal personality traits that deserve to e treated in an effort to offer the patient an opportunity to live a full and productive life. This is a critical option for people who have normal personality traits, but also exhibit the identified borderline abnormal personality traits as well within their psyche. Over a half decade ago, the best treatments were heralded as therapeutic, and they seemed Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS to promise the greatest success overall. But today, there are many alternate treatments available for individuals exhibiting abnormal personality disorders. They include drug therapies, sychodynamic therapy, day hospital intervention, and dialectical behavior therapy (Linehan, 1992, Tyrer, p. 84). Other methods of treatment that carry high success for the patients are the partial hospitalization of patients (Bateman & Fonagy, 1999). Bateman & Fonagy compared the effectiveness of treating patients exhibiting borderline personality disorders with partial hospitalization s a standard psychiatric care. They studied thirty-eight patients with borderline personality disorder and offered them individual and group psychoanalytic psychotherapy, for up to 18 months (Bateman & Fonagy, 1999). The results were that the patients who had been partially hospitalized did exhibit less problems, with â€Å"An improvement in depressive symptoms, a decrease in suicidal and self-mutilatory acts, reduced inpatient days, and better social and interpersonal function began at 6 months and continued until the end of treatment at 18 months† (Bateman & Fonagy, 1999). Their conclusion was that the partial hospitalization was determined as a far superior type of psychiatric care for those patients exhibiting borderline personality disorder. This treatment option was in opposition with the standard treatment options of the herapies listed above. These results were similar in the study by Piper, (1993) where a day treatment program at the University of Alberta Hospital in Edmonton, Alberta was studied. The patients were referred from the day treatment program and walk-in clinic, and utilized participants with â€Å"chronically disturbed non-schizophrenic patients, who usually have aff ective and personality disorders† (Piper, p. 757). The results of the study were that day treatment programs were considered effective for patients with long-term nonschizophrenic disorders. The Running Head: NORMAL TRAITS WITHIN ABNORMAL PERSONALITY DISORDERS atients noted significant improvement in â€Å"four of the five areas studied—interpersonal functioning, symptomatology, life satisfaction, and self-esteem—as well as in several of disturbance associated with individual objectives (Piper, p. 762). Reference American Psychiatric Association (1980) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd edn) (DSM—III). Washington, DC: APA. Bateman, A. & Fonagy, P. (1999). Effectiveness of partial hospitalization in the treatment of borderline personality disorder: a randomized controlled trial. 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A randomized trial of psychiatric day treatment for patients with affective and personality disorders. Hosp Community Psychiatry, 44, 757–763. Plutchik, R. (1980). A general psychoevolutionary theory of emotion. In R. Plutchik, & H. Kellerman (Eds. ), Emotion: Theory, research, and experience (pp. 3–33). San Diego, CA: Academic. Rutter, M. (1987). Temperament, personality and personality disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 443–458. Tyrer, Peter. (2001). Personality disorder. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 179, 81-84. Retrieved on April 9, 2010 from http://bjp. rcpsych. org/cgi/content/full/179/1/81 Watson, David, Clark, Lee Anna, Chmielewski, Michael. (2008). Structures of Personality and Their Relevance to Psychopathology: II. Further Articulation of a Comprehensive Unified Trait Structure. Journal of Personality, 76(6), 1545-1586. EBSCO Database: Academic Search Premier. Vernon, P. E. (1964). Personality assessment: A critical survey. London: Methuen. Wakefield, J. C. (1992). Disorder as harmful dysfunction: A conceptual critique of DSM-III-R’s definition of mental disorder. Psychological Review, 99, 232–247. Widiger, T. A. , & Sankis, L. M. (2000). Adult psychopathology: Issues and controversies. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 377–404. Widiger, T. A. , & Trull, T. J. (1991). Diagnosis and clinical assessment. Annual Review of